Discuss the five types of Hepatitis in terms of etiology, symptoms, treatment and prevention
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Essays: (at least 300 words per prompt)
1. Discuss the five types of Hepatitis in terms of etiology, symptoms, treatment and prevention.
2. Discuss is the difference between the etiology and symptoms of cholelithiasis and cholecystitis. Can a person have cholelithiasis and cholecystitis at the same time? How can cholelithiasis and cholecystitis affect the liver and pancreas? Explain why one cannot live without the pancreas.
3. Why is diabetes associated with chronic renal disease and end stage renal disease, explain? What are the treatment options and health lifestyle changes for chronic renal disease? What is the purpose of dialysis and the difference between hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis?
4. Zach is a high school football player. He took a hard blow to the left flank and has a large bruise. He came into the ER with a suspected acute kidney injury. What signs and symptoms would you expect to see? What diagnostic test would you expect to be order and why? What is the treatment for acute kidney injury?
SAMPLE STUDENT ANSWER
Liver, Pancreas, and Kidney Diseases
The liver, kidney, and pancreas have vital functions. The functions of the liver include the production of specific proteins used to make blood plasma, bile which helps break down fats and excretion, and cholesterol (Bellini et al., 2019). The function of the pancreas is to make pancreatic enzymes needed to break down fats, sugars, and starches. The pancreas converts food to energy. The kidney’s primary function is to become excess fluids and waste from the body.
The kidney ensures a healthy balance of salts, water, and minerals (Bellini et al., 2019). The functions of these organs make them susceptible to many diseases. The purpose of this paper is to discuss hepatitis, cholelithiasis, cholecystitis, renal failure, and acute kidney injury, some of the diseases that affect the functions of the liver, pancreas, and kidney.
Types of Hepatitis
There are five different types of hepatitis. The first type is hepatitis A. This disease is caused hepatitis A virus. The virus spreads when unvaccinated and uninfected individuals eat food or drink water contaminated by the infected person’s stool. The disease symptoms include dark urine, fatigue, sudden vomiting and nausea, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, jaundice, itching, and joint pain. The disease can be prevented using the hepatitis A vaccine. There is no treatment for hepatitis A. It clears on its own in six months. The second type is hepatitis B. Hepatitis B is caused by the hepatitis B virus.
It is spread through semen, blood, and other body fluids. Its symptoms include dark urine, joint pain, fever, abdominal pain, fatigue, weakness, loss of appetite, and jaundice (Agarwal et al., 2018). The infection can be treated by tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (Agarwal et al., 2018). It is prevented through vaccination. Other prevention measures include using protection during sex, avoiding illicit drugs, and knowing the health status of a sexual partner.
The third type is hepatitis C. The hepatitis C virus causes the disease. It spread through infected blood. Its symptoms include fatigue, bruising easily, poor appetite, itchy skin, bleeding easily, jaundice, ascites, weight loss, swelling in your legs, spider angiomas, and hepatic encephalopathy (Buggisch et al., 2019). It can be treated using sofosbuvir/velpatasvir (Buggisch et al., 2019). The disease can be prevented through practicing safe sex, being cautious about tattooing and body piercing, and avoiding illicit drugs. The fourth type is hepatitis D. The hepatitis D virus causes the disease.
It is transmitted through body fluids. Its symptoms include light-colored stool, fatigue, jaundice, joint pain, throwing up, stomach upset, and pain in the belly. It is treated using peg-IFNa (Muhammad et al., 2019). It can be prevented by practicing safe sex, avoiding injected drugs, and sharing needles. The last type is hepatitis E. It is caused by the hepatitis E virus found in infected persons’ feces. Symptoms include mild fever, itching, jaundice, throwing up, dark urine, and belly pain. The disease heals on its own. It can be prevented by avoiding contaminated water and food.
Cholelithiasis and Cholecystitis
Hard particles in the gallbladder cause cholelithiasis. Diez et al. (2021) note that the disease occurs when one’s bile has too much bilirubin or cholesterol or when the gallbladder poorly empties. On the other hand, cholecystitis is caused by a tumor, gallstones, infection, such as gallbladder inflammation and AIDs, bile dust blockage, and blood vessels problems. In terms of symptoms, a person with cholelithiasis will show back pain between the shoulders, vomiting, nausea, pain in the right shoulder, and sudden and intensifying pain in the upper and center abdomen (Diez et al., 2021).
The symptoms of cholecystitis include vomiting, fever, nausea, pain that spreads in the right shoulder, and pain in the center and right abdomen (Diez et al., 2021). The difference in the symptoms of the two diseases is that cholecystitis causes tender abdomen while cholelithiasis does not. Another difference is that cholecystitis causes fever while cholelithiasis does not. However, both diseases cause abdominal pain in the center and right abdomen.
According to Diez et al. (2021), cholecystitis can be caused by cholelithiasis. Hence, a patient can have both cholelithiasis and cholecystitis simultaneously. Cholelithiasis affects the liver by disrupting the functions of the bile ducts (Yahng & Pham, 2019). The liver cannot work well if the hard particles block the bile ducts. The disease also affects the pancreas by causing pancreatitis. The pancreatic enzymes are often forced back to the pancreas when the bile duct is blocked.
Cholecystitis can affect the liver and pancreas by causing the death of gallbladder tissues and gallbladder infection (Yahng & Pham, 2019). The pancreas is an important organ in the body. A person cannot live without the pancreas because they need it during the digestion process. The pancreas makes pancreatic enzymes during digestion to break down starches, fats, and sugars. The pancreas also makes hormones and insulin, which are necessary during digestion.
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Chronic Renal Disease
Diabetes occurs when the body cannot use the insulin properly or produce insulin. It is linked to chronic renal failure and end-stage renal disease because it is a major risk factor for the disease (Shen et al., 2017). One of the ways diabetes causes chronic renal disease, and end-stage renal disease is by increasing one’s blood pressure. High blood pressure often damages the tiny blood vessels in the kidney. The vessels can become clogged and narrow over time; this will damage the kidneys.
Diabetes also causes urinary tract conditions and nerve problems which might affect the kidneys and lead to renal failure (Shen et al., 2017). Diabetes also causes high blood glucose, also known as high glycemic. High glycemia can cause renal failure by damaging the kidneys.
Chronic renal disease has no cure. Treatment is often recommended to manage the symptoms of the disease. A kidney transplant or dialysis can be recommended if the disease becomes severe. Kidney dialysis is a treatment approach in which waste products and extra fluid in a patient’s blood are artificially removed when the kidney does not function well. If dialysis does not work, a kidney transplant can be scheduled.
A person with renal failure should change his or her lifestyle to live a long and fulfilling life. Arroyo et al. (2020) note that patients with renal failure should not ingest food with added salt and high potassium. Patients with the disease should also limit the number of proteins in their food. Lastly, renal failure patients should often exercise to improve blood circulation and excretion through sweat (Arroyo et al., 2020).
The purpose of dialysis is to help a patient get rid of wastes and extra fluids from the blood artificially. Dialysis is often done using an artificial kidney known as a hemodialyzer. The difference between hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis is that hemodialysis is done using an artificial kidney. However, peritoneal dialysis uses the patient’s belly as a natural filter.
Acute Kidney Injury
Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a condition where one’s kidney stops working properly suddenly. AKI can progress to kidney failure is not managed on time. A person with AKI can report the feeling of drowsiness, confusion, diarrhea, urinating less than usual, feeling sick, and dehydration (Ronco et al., 2020). Other symptoms include fluid retention, which causes swelling on the ankles, feet, and legs.
The disease also causes shortness of breath, coma or seizures in severe cases, irregular heartbeat, and chest pressure or pain (Ronco et al., 2020). A patient who presents with the above symptoms will need to undergo various tests to confirm the diagnosis.
One of the diagnostic tests that can be ordered is a urine test. According to Gameiro et al. (2018), urinalysis can reveal substances indicating kidney injury. Another test is measuring urine outputs. AKI reduces the amount of urine during urination (Gameiro et al., 2018). Therefore, the physician can diagnose AKI by determining the amount of urine within 24 hours. A blood test can also be ordered. Blood tests can show the level of creatinine and urea in the blood (Gameiro et al., 2018).
The two substances are used to measure the function of the kidneys. Imaging tests can be ordered to observe the patient’s kidneys. Lastly, a sample of kidney tissue can be removed and tested for AKI. A patient with AKI should be admitted. Treatment of AKI often involves identifying the underlying cause of the injury and managing it. For instance, if AKI is caused by chronic kidney failure, the patient will need treatment to balance fluid composition in his body.
If the patient is dehydrated, he will need to drink a lot of water to stay hydrated (Salim et al., 2018). The authors also note that aminoglycosides should be prescribed to treat AKI caused by dehydration. The medication should be given in the hospital under close supervision.
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Summary
The paper has discussed diseases that affect the liver, pancreas, and kidney, some of the most important organs in the body. One of the diseases discussed in the paper is hepatitis. There are five types of hepatitis, including hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E. Cholelithiasis and cholecystitis have also been discussed in the paper. The two diseases impact the liver and pancreas by interrupting the bile duct and gallbladder functions.
The paper has also discussed chronic renal failure and end-stage renal disease. These diseases impact the function of the kidney. AKI has also been discussed in the paper. AKI is a condition where one’s kidney stops working properly suddenly.
Conclusion
One cannot live without a liver, kidney, or pancreas. However, these organs are vulnerable to many diseases and health problems. For instance, all hepatitis conditions affect the liver. They cause swelling of the liver. Cholelithiasis and cholecystitis both negatively affect the liver and pancreas. Cholelithiasis disrupts the functions of the bile duct, and cholecystitis causes gallbladder infection.
Chronic renal failure affects the kidneys. The disease prevents the kidney from performing its functions. AKI also affects kidney function by causing fluid retention and preventing excretion. These diseases are hard to treat, and thus people should focus on preventing them.
References
Agarwal, K., Brunetto, M., Seto, W. K., Lim, Y. S., Fung, S., Marcellin, P., … & GS-US-320-0108 Investigators. (2018). 96 weeks treatment of tenofovir alafenamide vs. tenofovir disoproxil fumarate for hepatitis B virus infection. Journal of Hepatology, 68(4), 672-681. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhep.2017.11.039
Arroyo, V., Moreau, R., & Jalan, R. (2020). Acute-on-chronic liver failure. New England Journal of Medicine, 382(22), 2137-2145. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMra1914900
Bellini, M. I., Yiu, J., Nozdrin, M., & Papalois, V. (2019). The effect of preservation temperature on liver, kidney, and pancreas tissue ATP in animal and preclinical human models. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 8(9), 1421. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm8091421
Buggisch, P., Wursthorn, K., Stoehr, A., Atanasov, P. K., Supiot, R., Lee, J., … & Petersen, J. (2019). Real-world effectiveness and safety of sofosbuvir/velpatasvir and ledipasvir/sofosbuvir hepatitis C treatment in a single centre in Germany. PLoS One, 14(4), e0214795. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0214795
Diez, S., Müller, H., Weiss, C., Schellerer, V., & Besendörfer, M. (2021). Cholelithiasis and cholecystitis in children and adolescents: Does this increasing diagnosis require a common guideline for pediatricians and pediatric surgeons?. BMC Gastroenterology, 21(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12876-021-01772-y
Gameiro, J., Agapito Fonseca, J., Jorge, S., & Lopes, J. A. (2018). Acute kidney injury definition and diagnosis: a narrative review. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 7(10), 307. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm7100307
Muhammad, H., Tehreem, A., Hammami, M. B., Ting, P. S., Idilman, R., & Gurakar, A. (2021). Hepatitis D virus and liver transplantation: Indications and outcomes. World Journal of Hepatology, 13(3), 291–299. https://doi.org/10.4254/wjh.v13.i3.291
Ronco, C., Reis, T., & Husain-Syed, F. (2020). Management of acute kidney injury in patients with COVID-19. The Lancet. Respiratory medicine, 8(7), 738–742. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30229-0
Salim, S. A., Everitt, J., Schwartz, A., Agarwal, M., Castenada, J., Fülöp, T., & Juncos, L. A. (2018). Aminoglycoside impregnated cement spacer precipitating acute kidney injury requiring hemodialysis. In Seminars in Dialysis (Vol. 31, No. 1, pp. 88-93). https://doi.org/10.1111/sdi.12639
Shen, Y., Cai, R., Sun, J., Dong, X., Huang, R., Tian, S., & Wang, S. (2017). Diabetes mellitus as a risk factor for incident chronic kidney disease and end-stage renal disease in women compared with men: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Endocrine, 55(1), 66–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12020-016-1014-6
Yahng, J. M. J., & Pham, T. (2019). The tales of two neighbours: When cholecystitis does not preclude pancreatitis. Journal of Surgical Case Reports, 2019(2), rjz019. https://doi.org/10.1093/jscr/rjz019
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